Effects of Language on a Specific Region

Effects of Language on a Specific Region Crystal Mullen ASSIGNMENT: Select a specific region that interests you, such as South America, Central America, Asia, etc., and research, as well as evaluate, the power of language in creating the idea of a region. Is language a self-sufficient and complete geographical model? Write a 1-2 page paper explaining your findings. Please be sure to substantiate your opinions with examples, as well as cite your resources using APA format. in length. Professor Sandve’s Explanation: 1) Define a region. What is a region? 2) Evaluate the power of language. Can you define a regions society, traditions, norms, climate, topography, etc. by evaluating the language? 3) Is language a self-sufficient and complete geographical model? What is a geographical model? If language is the only characteristic youre evaluating, can you fully define the region? I believe a region means something different to different people or industries. Before taking this class, I thought a region was that part of the basement or that portion of an attic that scary movies warned us to avoid. The Merriam-Webster dictionary had a different view: â€Å"Region: a part of a country, of the world, etc., that is different or separate from other parts in some way (Merriam-Webster.com, 2014)† This definition appears to speak more to the topic of geography because we are now discussing spatial locations that offer distinct characteristics that are found in that found in that location. However, I need to know what a region is from a geographer’s point of view. â€Å"Region: in geography, an area of the earth that displays distinctive grouping of physical or cultural phenomena or is functionally united as a single organizational unit (Getis, Bjelland, Getis, 2014).† This definition best describes geography in the for this assignment because it encourages me to pick an area of the world that I find interesting because of how various physical or cultural features are joined into one spatial location. One region that I that does interest me is Africa. Africa is the second largest continent in the world; as well as the world’s second most-populous continent. Within its borders one will find 54 countries that are share the home for the continent’s many mountains, rivers, valleys and deserts. First of all, the Atlas Mountains run from the southwestern portion of Morocco along the coastline of the Mediterranean, all the way to Tunisia’s eastern edge. Also, the Great Rift Valley is the continent’s ground form of depression. Here is found a series of geological faults at are approximately 4,000 miles in length. The extent of the Great Rift Valley extends from the Red Sea region near Jordan, to the country of Mozambique. Furthermore, Africa is home to the Congo River Basin which dominates the landscape of central Africa’s Democratic Republic of the Congo. Finally though certainly not I would be remiss to speak of Africa without speaking of the Sahara Desert. The Sahara Desert cover close those a third o f Africa’s surface. It is the world’s largest desert in the world at approximately 3,500,000 square miles in total size (World Atlas, 2014). Based on this the geographical information, I would be surprised to learn if there is a cohesion of language within the continent to unify the continent of Africa. The range of traditions and customs in Africa are as diverse as Africa’s geography. For example, when it comes to meal time, the men eat before the women. Children remain silent while adult meal conversation is in progress. Also, hospitality is very important to the country of Africa. When they welcome their guests, they wash their hands, clap, and offer their best meats as a symbol of graciousness. Furthermore, when it comes to courtship, it appears that it is the girl who initiates the process. She will send a multi-colored beaded bracelet to the boy of her choice. Each bead represents a secret meaning and once the courtship process is over the secret behind the beads are revealed. Finally, though certainly exhaustively, it is customary during an African wedding that the bride wears a wedding dress that reflects her culture’s traditions and heritage. Also, the bride and groom are often tied at the wrists with either cloth or braided grass as a symbol of their newly cr eated union (Drake, 2014). When I read these customs, I feel as if it is possible for language to be a complete self-sufficient model of its people because their customs appear to transcend their multi-faceted geography, The aspect about Africa is their massive diversity of languages and dialects. While no one appears to know for absolute certainty, the best estimate of the number of languages and dialects spoken in Africa are around 2,000. One group of African languages are known as the Afro-Asiatic language group of languages. The 400 languages under this umbrella is generally heard spoken in North, East, and Southwest Africa. Some examples of these languages include Aramaic, Amharic, Arabic, Hausa, Hebrew, and Tigrinya. Another family of languages heard spoken in Africa is the Khoisan, or language. This happens a language that may be dying out, it is currently spoken in Angola, Botswana, and Namibia. This is the family of fifty different languages that use mainly clicking or tonal sounds to communicate. Finally though certainly not exhaustively the language family that holds the greatest number of languages is the Niger-Congo language family. Under this umbrella of languages one will find almost 4 00 languages that are spoken by over 500 million people. Common languages that fall within this family include Igbo, Swahili, Yoruba, and Zulu (wiseGEEK, 2014). I find it fascinating that there are countless languages for a person in Africa to express the frustration of the desert sand, being insulted by a dinner guest or vowing his or her life to a new spouse. I find myself conflicted when I consider if language is a complete, self-sufficient geographical model of the region of Africa. On the one hand, because there are over 2,000 languages, spoken in Africa, I would say that each language and dialect is a perfect representation of the country, or portion of that country within Africa. If language were my only representation I was evaluating, I could easily define that particular region. On the other hand, because there are over 2,000 languages, spoken in Africa, I would say that each language and dialect creates the perfect storm for confusion for Africa as a whole. I don’t see how I could identify Africa as a continent because the continent cannot unite behind one or two languages. In this scenario, if language were my only representation I was evaluating, I would greatly struggle to define the continent because millions of African citizens would not be representing in my definition. Therefore, I find that the African languages bo th reflect and confuses the geographic model found in the continent of Africa. References Drake, F. (2014). African Customs. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from eHow.com: http://www.ehow.com/info_8582146_african-customs.html Getis, A., Bjelland, M., Getis, V. (2014, January 7). Glossary. In A. Getis, M. Bjelland, V. Getis, Introduction to Geography (pp. G-9). New York: McGraw Hill. Retrieved from Balanced Politics: http://www.balancedpolitics.org/affirmative_action.htm Merriam-Webster.com. (2014). Definiton of Region. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from Merriam-Webster.com: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/region wiseGEEK. (2014). How Many Languages are Spoken in Africa? Retrieved January 26, 2014, from wiseGEEK: http://www.wisegeek.org/how-many-languages-are-spoken-in-africa.htm World Atlas. (2014). Africa Map. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from World Atlas: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/af.htm World Atlas. (2014). Geography Africa. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from World Atlas: http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/afland.htm

Leslie Marmon Silkos Lullaby, Storyteller, and Yellow Woman Essay exam

Leslie Marmon Silko's Lullaby, Storyteller, and Yellow Woman Leslie Marmon Silko?s work is set apart due to her Native American Heritage. She writes through ?Indian eyes? which makes her stories very different from others. Silko is a Pueblo Indian and was educated in one of the governments? BIA schools. She knows the culture of the white man, which is not uncommon for modern American Indians. Her work is powerful and educating at the same time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In this paper, I will discuss three different works by Silko (Lullaby, Storyteller, and Yellow Woman). Each of the stories will be discussed according to plot, style, and social significance. After that, I will relate Silko?s work to other literary genies and analyze her work as a whole. ?Lullaby';   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main character in this story is a woman named Ayah. Ayah is a Native American who lives in a shack with her husband and two children. She is not very close to her husband, (Chato), but she is very loyal to him. This is the way of a Navajo Woman, being loyal to your husband and family. Chato was a well-spoken man who spoke both English and Spanish in addition to his native language. The worst thing that happened to Ayah was the loss of her two children to the welfare board. They were either sick or she wasn?t providing for them. She wasn?t taking care of them in a way that pleased the whites; however, she raised her children beautifully in the Native American tradition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ?Lullaby'; is full of Native Ame...

Essay on Rewriting History in Henry IV -- Henry IV Henry V Essays

Rewriting History in Henry IV      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The master of historiography is, perhaps, Shakespeare as evidenced by his History Plays. Whereas most writers merely borrow from history to fuel their creative fires, Shakespeare goes so far as to rewrite history. The First Part of Henry the Fourth follows history fairly closely, and Shakespeare draws this history primarily from Raphael Holinshed's Chronicle of England, Scotland, and Ireland and from Samuel Daniel's verse epic The Civil Wars (Abrams 823).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The play opens shortly after Henry Bolingbroke has usurped the throne from Richard II, becoming the fourth King Henry, and changing the royal lineage from the House of Plantagenet to the House of Lancaster. In the opening sequence, Henry IV is in the process of vowing peace in England and promising a crusade to liberate the Holy Land. No motive for this crusade surfaces in 1 Henry IV, other than the fact that it is some unfinished business from Shakespeare's preceding play Richard II (Kelly 214). Henry's pledge of civil peace is ironic because during this first scene he receives word that his troops have been overtaken by Glendower in Wales, and Hotspur has met and defeated the Scots in the North (1.1.36-61). To the news, the King replies, "It seems then that the tidings of this broil / Brake off our business for the Holy Land" (1.1.47-8). Postponing the business in Jerusalem, Henry IV eventually leads England into civil war with Hotspur a t the Battle of Shrewsbury. These actions will ultimately ignite the War of the Roses between the Lancasters (Henry IV's family) and the Yorks (descendants of Richard II).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The play then shifts its focus to the younger Henry, nicknamed Hal. Shakespeare portrays the ... ... as king. Shakespeare the Historian is not so wonderful as Shakespeare the Playwright, yet through Shakespeare's History Plays many modern readers draw their knowledge of the history prior to Shakespeare.    Works Cited * Drabble, Margaret, ed. The Oxford Companion to English Literature. 5th Ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1985. * Jacob, E. F. The Fifteenth Century: 1399-1485. London: Oxford UP, 1961. * Kelly, Henry Ansgar. Divine Providence in the England of Shakespeare's Histories. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1970. * McFarlane, K. B. Lancastrian Kings and Lollard Knights. London: Oxford UP, 1972. * Rowse, A. L. Bosworth Field: From Medieval to Tudor England. New York: Doubleday, 1966. * Shakespeare, William. 1 Henry IV. Ed. M. H. Abrams. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Vol. 1, 6th ed. New York: Norton, 1993.   

Expectations manipulate the reader Essay

How does Dickens Presentation of Pips threatened childhood in chapters 1-8 of great Expectations manipulate the reader? ‘Great expectations’ is a book written by Charles Dickens, and was first published in 1861. Charles Dickens was a Victorian writer and also a social commentator during the time. The novel ‘Great Expectations’ commentates on lower class life in the Victorian era. The book is mainly based on social criticism. The novel is about a boy called Pip who has a cruel start to life, living with his mean sister and her husband. With many people indifferent to Pips life, Pip starts with low expectations wanting to go to prison. Afterwards his life changes when he is described as a common labouring boy, eager to change this he also changes his expectations in life and from wanting to go to prison, or becoming a blacksmith he wants to become a gentleman and have a high status. Throughout the novel we are manipulated into feeling sorry for Pip. The events in his life, the people he meets and the way he is treated from childhood till he is grown up. Pip is an orphan at the beginning of the story, this and the factors such as that his parents are dead make us feel sorry for him. He also lives with his sister who is a harsh and beastly woman and treats him horridly. We are first introduced to Pip whilst he is a child. While in the graveyard he meets an escaped convict who treats him harshly. One of the ways that Dickens manipulates us during this is showing how unprotected and weak Pip is. ‘After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater sense of helplessness and danger’ (chapter 1) this quote shows how feeble Pip is. We are later manipulated even more by the way his sister treats him. Contempt and hatred are just some of the ways that could be used to describe her attitude towards him. Hence he is a lonely, weak boy who has no parents. Mrs Joe ‘applied Tickler to its further investigation. She concluded by throwing me – I often served as a connubial missile’. She beats Pip and acts as if he is nothing but a mere slave to her and must do as he is told or she willHow does Dickens successfully link Magwitch’s appearance in Chapter one with his return in Chapter Thirty-nine in ‘Great Expectations’? ‘Great Expectations’ is set in the 1800’s, for gentlemen of that time, life was rich and full of beautiful houses and places. Because they didn’t have to work they spent their days chatting, going to dinners and just having fun. But for the working class, they had to always be thinking of ways to make money and always working to secure their next meal. This novel was serialised, which meant that the story was published part by part and so, many groups of people would gather together to read the story. They could then tell each other what they thought was going to happen in the next couple of chapters. To make the audience want to read the next couple of chapters, Dickens had to end each chapter with a cliff hanger. The central protagonist in this novel is Pip. In the first chapter we learn that Pip’s parents are dead and so he lives with his sister and her husband. We also learn that he had 5 other brothers and sisters who have also died as their five mini gravestones or rocks are beside Pip’s parents grave. He frequently visits his parent’s grave even though he has no memory of ever seeing them. He paints a picture in his mind of his mum and dad. In this chapter we get to meet Abel Magwitch who will become a central figure in Pip’s life. Dickens successfully uses pathetic fallacy in both Chapter One and Chapter Thirty-nine to create a negative tension. In Chapter One, he describes the weather with negative adjectives such as ‘sting’, ‘torn’, and ‘growled’. These all give negative connotations to the reader to create the bad tension in the weather. He also uses the onomatopoeia like ‘shivers’ and ‘shuddering’ to show how the weather is affecting people. He also uses the word ‘shuddering’ again in Chapter Thirty-nine providing an obvious link in the weather. Dickens uses the adjective ‘angry’ more then once to show that whatever is going to happen won’t be good. In Chapter Thirty-nine, Dickens hints at negative events by using the simile, ‘like discharges of a cannon’ which also ties into Chapter One because it is signalling that an escaped convict could be entering the story again because a cannon would sound whenever a convict had escaped. Dickens describes the weather as ‘stormy and wet, stormy and wet’ which uses repetition to push across how bad the weather is. He also says, ‘mud, mud, mud’ which is a list of three, which is a very convincing technique to help set the scene for Magwitch’s return.

The Nature of Viruses

Viruses are sub-cellular agents of infection that must utilize the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in order to reproduce. Composed of a single strand of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein capsid, a virus is too small to be seen by standard light microscopy; indeed, most are less than one hundredth the size of a bacterium. Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the host cell; this attachment process is essential to viral infectivity and explains why viruses may only infect the cells of certain species or may only infect certain cells or tissues within a given host species. While the infecting virus triggers an immune response in the host, some are capable of suppressing that response by infecting and killing cells that control immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes). In addition, while most infected cells are destroyed by viral replication, some viruses enter a latent phase within cells, reactivating in the future to produce chronic or relapsing infections. Many viruses use specific carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible host while others are spread between individuals via blood contact or through respiratory, intestinal or sexual secretions. Of special concern is the fact that mutations within the viral genome may allow viruses to skip from one host (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to another (e. g. humans), unleashing pandemics. Many common human infections are produced by viruses; these include the common cold, influenza, mononucleosis, herpes infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, including pericarditis and myocarditis. While viruses do not respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agents may control (though not cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the severity of acute infection (as in influenza and herpes infections). However, in most viral infections, treatment is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines are capable of preventing some viral infections (e. g. herpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the severity of an acute infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the acute or chronic illness that they produce, some viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) are known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, many researchers suspect that viruses play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. ttp://naturesblog. blogspot. com/2013/01/the-nature-of-viruses. html The Nature of Viruses Viruses exist in two different states, the extracellular infectious particle or virion and the intracellular state consisting of viral nucleic acid. The capsid may be a polyhedron or a helix, or a combination of both (in some phages). Viruses are infective micro ¬o rganisms that show several differences from typical microbial cells. 1. Size. The size range of viruses is from about 20 to 300 nm. On the whole, viruses are much smaller than bacteria. Most animal viruses and all plant viruses and phages are invisible under the light microscope. 2. Simple structure. Viruses have very simple structures. The simplest viruses are nucleoprotein particles consisting of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein capsid. In this respect they differ from typical cells which arc made up) of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nuc1eicacids. The more complex viruses contain lipids and carbohydrates in addition to proteins and nucleic acids, e. g. the enveloped viruses 3. Absence of cellular structure. Viruses do not have any cytoplasm, and thus cytoplasmic organelles like mitochondria, Golgi complexes, lysosomes, ribosomes, etc. , are absent. They do not have any limiting cell membrane. They utilize the ribosomes of the host cell for protein synthesis during reproduction. 4. No independent metabolism. Viruses cannot multiply outside a living cell. No virus has been cultivated in a cell-free medium. Viruses do not have an independent metabolism. They are metabo ¬lically inactive outside the host cell because they do not posses enzyme systems and protein synthesis machinery. Viral nucleic acid replicates by utilizing the protein synthesis machinery of the host. It codes for the synthesis of a limited number of viral proteins, including the subunits or capsomeres of the capsid, the tail protein and some enzymes concerned Viruses have only one nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Typical cells have both DNA and RNA. Genomes of certain with the synthesis or the release of virions. 5. Nucleic acids. RNA viruses can be transcribed into complementary DNA strands in the infected host cells, e. g. Rous Sarcoma Virus (RSV). Such RNA viruses are therefore also called RNA-DNA viruses. 6. Crystallization. Many of the smaller viruses can be crystallized, and thus behave like chemicals. 7. No growth and division. Viruses do not have the power of growth and division. A fully formed virus does not increase in, size by addition of new molecules. The virus itself cannot divide. Only its genetic material (RNA or DNA) is capable of reproduction and that too only in a host cell. It will thus be seen that viruses do not show all the characteris ¬tics of typical living organisms. They, however, possess two funda ¬mental characteristics of living systems. Firstly, they contain nucleic acid as their genetic material. The nucleic acid contains instructions for the structure and function of the virus. Secondly, they can reproduce themselves, even if only by using the host cells synthesis machinery. Viral genomes The nucleic acid comprising the genome may be single-stranded or double-stranded, & in a linear, circular or segmented configuration. Single-stranded virus genomes may be: †¢ positive (+)sense, i. e. of the same polarity (nucleotide sequence) as mRNA †¢ negative (-)sense Ambisense – a mixture of the two. N/B. Virus genomes range in size from approximately 3,200 nucleotides (nt) to approximately 1. 2 million base pairs Unlike the genomes of all cells, which are composed of DNA, virus genomes may contain their genetic information encoded in either DNA or RNA. Since viruses are obligate intracellular parasites only able to replicate inside the appropriate host cells, the genome must contain information encoded in a form which can be recognized & decoded by the particular type of cell parasitized. Thus, the genetic code employed by the virus must match or at least be recognized by the host organism. Similarly, the control signals which direct the expression of virus genes must be appropriate to the host. Many of the DNA viruses of eukaryotes closely resemble their host cells in terms of the biology of their genomes: Some DNA virus genomes are complexed with cellular histones to form a chromatin-like structure inside the virus particle. http://expertscolumn. com/content/nature-viruses http://www. mcb. uct. ac. za/tutorial/virorig. html Viral evolution Viral evolution is a subfield of evolutionary biology and virology that is specifically concerned with the evolution of viruses. Many viruses, in particular RNA viruses, have short generation times and relatively high mutation rates (on the order of one point mutation or more per genome per round of replication for RNA viruses). This elevated mutation rate, when combined with natural selection, allows viruses to quickly adapt to changes in their host environment. Viral evolution is an important aspect of the epidemiology of viral diseases such as influenza (influenza virus), AIDS (HIV), and hepatitis (e. . HCV). It also causes problems in the development of successful vaccines and antiviral drugs, as resistant mutations often appear within weeks or months after the beginning of the treatment. One of the main theoretical models to study viral evolution is the quasispecies model, as the viral quasispecies. | Origins Viruses are ancient. Studies at the molecular level have revealed relationships between viruses infecting organisms from each of the three domains of life, and viral proteins that pre-date the divergence of life and thus the last universal common ancestor. 1] This indicates that viruses emerged early in the evolution of life and existed before modern cells. [2] There are three classical hypotheses on the origins of viruses: Viruses may have once been small cells that parasitised larger cells (the degeneracy hypothesis[3][4] or reduction hypothesis[5]); some viruses may have evolved from bits of DNA or RNA that â€Å"escaped† from the genes of a larger organism (the vagrancy hypothesis[6] or escape hypothesis); or viruses could have evolved from complex molecules of protein and nucleic acid at the same time as cells first appeared on earth (the virus-first hypothesis). 5] None of these hypotheses was fully accepted: the regressive hypothesis did not explain why even the smallest of cellular parasites do not resemble viruses in any way. The escape hypothesis did not explain the complex capsids and other structures on virus particles. The virus-first hypothesis was quickly dismissed because it contravened the definition of viruses, in that they require host cells. [5] Virologists are, however, beginning to reconsider and re-evaluate all three hypotheses. [7][8] http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Viral_evolution Evolution Time-line of paleoviruses in the human lineage[9] Viruses do not form fossils in the traditional sense, because they are much smaller than the grains of sedimentary rocks that fossilize plants and animals. However, the genomes of many organism contain endogenous viral elements (EVEs). These DNA sequences are the remnants of ancient virus genes and genomes that ancestrally ‘invaded' the host germline. For example, the genomes of most vertebrate species contain hundreds to thousands of sequences derived from ancient retroviruses. These sequences are a valuable source of retrospective evidence about the evolutionary history of viruses, and have given birth to the science of paleovirology. 9] The evolutionary history of viruses can to some extent be inferred from analysis of contemporary viral genomes. The mutation rates for many viruses have been measured, and application of a molecular clock allows dates of divergence to be inferred. [10] Viruses evolve through changes in their DNA (or RNA), some quite rapidly, and the best adapted mutants quickly outnumber their less fit counterparts. In this sense their evolution is Darwinian, just like that of their host organisms. [11] The way viruses reproduce in their host cells makes them particularly susceptible to the genetic changes that help to drive their evolution. 12] The RNA viruses are especially prone to mutations. [13] In host cells there are mechanisms for correcting mistakes when DNA replicates and these kick in whenever cells divide. [13] These important mechanisms prevent potentially lethal mutations from being passed on to offspring. But these mechanisms do not work for RNA and when an RNA virus replicates in its host cell, changes in their genes are occasionally introduced in error, some of which are lethal. One virus part icle can produce millions of progeny viruses in just one cycle of replication, therefore the production of a few â€Å"dud† viruses is not a problem. Most mutations are â€Å"silent† and do not result in any obvious changes to the progeny viruses, but others confer advantages that increase the fitness of the viruses in the environment. These could be changes to the virus particles that disguise them so they are not identified by the cells of the immune system or changes that make antiviral drugs less effective. Both of these changes occur frequently with HIV. [14] Phylogenetic tree showing the relationships of morbilliviruses of different species[15] Many viruses (for example, influenza A virus) can â€Å"shuffle† their genes with other viruses when two similar strains infect the same cell. This phenomenon is called genetic shift, and is often the cause of new and more virulent strains appearing. Other viruses change more slowly as mutations in their genes gradually accumulate over time, a process known as genetic drift. [16] Through these mechanisms new viruses are constantly emerging and present a continuing challenge to attempts to control the diseases they cause. [17][18] Most species of viruses are now known to have common ancestors, and although the â€Å"virus first† hypothesis has yet to gain full acceptance, there is little doubt that the thousands of species of modern viruses have evolved from less numerous ancient ones. 19] The morbilliviruses, for example, are a group of closely related, but distinct viruses that infect a broad range of animals. The group includes measles virus, which infects humans and primates; canine distemper virus, which infects many animals including dogs, cats, bears, weasels and hyaenas; rinderpest, which infects cattle and buffalo; and other viruses of seals, porpoises and dolphins. 20] Although it not possible to prove which of these rapidly evolving viruses is the earliest, for such a closely related group of viruses to be found in such diverse hosts suggests a possible ancient common ancestor. [21] The Nature of Viruses Viruses are sub-cellular agents of infection that must utilize the cellular machinery of bacteria, plants or animals in order to reproduce. Composed of a single strand of genetic material (DNA or RNA) encased in a protein capsid, a virus is too small to be seen by standard light microscopy; indeed, most are less than one hundredth the size of a bacterium. Specific proteins on the viral capsid attach to receptors on the host cell; this attachment process is essential to viral infectivity and explains why viruses may only infect the cells of certain species or may only infect certain cells or tissues within a given host species. While the infecting virus triggers an immune response in the host, some are capable of suppressing that response by infecting and killing cells that control immunity (e. g. HIV attacks lymphocytes). In addition, while most infected cells are destroyed by viral replication, some viruses enter a latent phase within cells, reactivating in the future to produce chronic or relapsing infections. Many viruses use specific carriers (known as vectors) such as mosquitoes, ticks, bats and rodents that transmit the virus to a susceptible host while others are spread between individuals via blood contact or through respiratory, intestinal or sexual secretions. Of special concern is the fact that mutations within the viral genome may allow viruses to skip from one host (e. g. birds, swine, monkeys) to another (e. g. humans), unleashing pandemics. Many common human infections are produced by viruses; these include the common cold, influenza, mononucleosis, herpes infections (including shingles), viral hepatitis (A, B, C and others), HIV, viral gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, viral pneumonia, encephalitis, viral meningitis and viral infections of the heart, including pericarditis and myocarditis. While viruses do not respond to antibiotics, specific antiviral agents may control (though not cure) chronic disease (such as HIV, Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C) or may modify the severity of acute infection (as in influenza and herpes infections). However, in most viral infections, treatment is, for now, purely symptomatic and supportive. On the other hand, vaccines are capable of preventing some viral infections (e. g. erpes simplex, measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, Hepatitis B) or reducing the severity of an acute infection (e. g. influenza). Beyond the acute or chronic illness that they produce, some viral infections (such and Hepatitis C and certain strains of herpes simplex) are known to be precursors of malignancy. Finally, many researchers suspect that viruses play a role in the pathogenesis of chronic illnesses such as multiple sclerosis and autoimmune disorders. development of viruses (images)

Deception Point Page 56

â€Å"He's breaking the law,† Gabrielle said. Isn't he? â€Å"Or so Marjorie Tench would have you believe. Candidates accept behind-the-scenes donations all the time from big corporations. It may not be pretty, but it's not necessarily illegal. In fact, most legal issues deal not with where the money comes from but how the candidate chooses to spend it.† Gabrielle hesitated, feeling uncertain now. â€Å"Gabs, the White House played you this afternoon. They tried to turn you against your candidate, and so far you've called their bluff. If I were looking for someone to trust, I think I'd stick with Sexton before jumping ship to someone like Marjorie Tench.† Yolanda's phone rang. She answered, nodding, uh-huh-ing, taking notes. â€Å"Interesting,† she finally said. â€Å"I'll be right there. Thanks.† Yolanda hung up and turned with an arched brow. â€Å"Gabs, sounds like you're off the hook. Just as I predicted.† â€Å"What's going on?† â€Å"I don't have a specific yet, but I can tell you this much-the president's press conference has nothing to do with sex scandals or campaign finance.† Gabrielle felt a flash of hope and wanted badly to believe her. â€Å"How do you know that?† â€Å"Someone on the inside just leaked that the press conference is NASA-related.† Gabrielle sat up suddenly. â€Å"NASA?† Yolanda winked. â€Å"This could be your lucky night. My bet is President Herney is feeling so much pressure from Senator Sexton that he's decided the White House has no choice but to pull the plug on the International Space Station. That explains all the global media coverage.† A press conference killing the space station? Gabrielle could not imagine. Yolanda stood up. â€Å"That Tench attack this afternoon? It was probably just a last-ditch effort to get a foothold over Sexton before the President had to go public with the bad news. Nothing like a sex scandal to take the attention away from another presidential flop. Anyhow, Gabs, I've got work to do. My advice to you-get yourself a cup of coffee, sit right here, turn on my television, and ride this out like the rest of us. We've got twenty minutes until show time, and I'm telling you, there is no way the President is going Dumpster-diving tonight. He's got the whole world watching. Whatever he has to say carries some serious weight.† She gave a reassuring wink. â€Å"Now give me the envelope.† â€Å"What?† Yolanda held out a demanding hand. â€Å"These pictures are getting locked in my desk until this is over. I want to be sure you don't do something idiotic.† Reluctantly, Gabrielle handed over the envelope. Yolanda locked the photos carefully in a desk drawer and pocketed the keys. â€Å"You'll thank me, Gabs. I swear it.† She playfully ruffled Gabrielle's hair on her way out. â€Å"Sit tight. I think good news is on the way.† Gabrielle sat alone in the glass cubicle and tried to let Yolanda's upbeat attitude lift her mood. All Gabrielle could think of, though, was the self-satisfied smirk on the face of Marjorie Tench this afternoon. Gabrielle could not imagine what the President was about to tell the world, but it was definitely not going to be good news for Senator Sexton. 65 Rachel Sexton felt like she was being burned alive. It's raining fire! She tried to open her eyes, but all she could make out were foggy shapes and blinding lights. It was raining all around her. Scalding hot rain. Pounding down on her bare skin. She was lying on her side and could feel hot tiles beneath her body. She curled more tightly into the fetal position, trying to protect herself from the scalding liquid falling from above. She smelled chemicals. Chlorine, maybe. She tried to crawl away, but she could not. Powerful hands pressed down on her shoulders, holding her down. Let me go! I'm burning! Instinctively, she again fought to escape, and again she was rebuffed, the strong hands clamping down. â€Å"Stay where you are,† a man's voice said. The accent was American. Professional. â€Å"It will be over soon.† What will be over? Rachel wondered. The pain? My life? She tried to focus her vision. The lights in this place were harsh. She sensed the room was small. Cramped. Low ceilings. â€Å"I'm burning!† Rachel's scream was a whisper. â€Å"You're fine,† the voice said. â€Å"This water is lukewarm. Trust me.† Rachel realized she was mostly undressed, wearing only her soaked underwear. No embarrassment registered; her mind was filled with too many other questions. The memories were coming back now in a torrent. The ice shelf. The GPR. The attack. Who? Where am I? She tried to put the pieces together, but her mind felt torpid, like a set of clogged gears. From out of the muddled confusion came a single thought: Michael and Corky†¦ where are they? Rachel tried to focus her bleary vision but saw only the men standing over her. They were all dressed in the same blue jumpsuits. She wanted to speak, but her mouth refused to formulate a single word. The burning sensation in her skin was now giving way to sudden deep waves of aching that rolled through the muscles like seismic tremors. â€Å"Let it happen,† the man over her said. â€Å"The blood needs to flow back into your musculature.† He spoke like a doctor. â€Å"Try to move your limbs as much as you can.† The pain racking Rachel's body felt as if every muscle was being beaten with a hammer. She lay there on the tile, her chest contracting, and she could barely breathe. â€Å"Move your legs and arms,† the man insisted. â€Å"No matter what it feels like.† Rachel tried. Each movement felt like a knife being thrust into her joints. The jets of water grew hotter again. The scalding was back. The crushing pain went on. At the precise instant she thought she could not withstand another moment, Rachel felt someone giving her an injection. The pain seemed to subside quickly, less and less violent, releasing. The tremors slowed. She felt herself breathing again. A new sensation was spreading through her body now, the eerie bite of pins and needles. Everywhere-stabbing-sharper and sharper. Millions of tiny needle-point jabs, intensifying whenever she moved. She tried to hold motionless, but the water jets continued to buffet her. The man above her was holding her arms, moving them. God that hurts! Rachel was too weak to fight. Tears of exhaustion and pain poured down her face. She shut her eyes hard, blocking out the world. Finally, the pins and needles began to dissipate. The rain from above stopped. When Rachel opened her eyes, her vision was clearer. It was then that she saw them. Corky and Tolland lay nearby, quivering, half-naked and soaked. From the looks of anguish on their faces, Rachel sensed that they had just endured similar experiences. Michael Tolland's brown eyes were bloodshot and glassy. When he saw Rachel, he managed a weak smile, his blue lips trembling. Rachel tried to sit up, to take in their bizarre surroundings. The three of them were lying in a trembling twist of half-naked limbs on the floor of a tiny shower room. 66 Strong arms lifted her. Rachel felt the powerful strangers drying her body and wrapping her in blankets. She was being placed on a medical bed of some sort and vigorously massaged on her arms, legs, and feet. Another injection in her arm. â€Å"Adrenaline,† someone said. Rachel felt the drug coursing through her veins like a life force, invigorating her muscles. Although she still felt an icy hollowness tight like a drum in her gut, Rachel sensed the blood slowly returning to her limbs. Back from the dead. She tried to focus her vision. Tolland and Corky were lying nearby, shivering in blankets as the men massaged their bodies and gave them injections as well. Rachel had no doubt that this mysterious assemblage of men had just saved their lives. Many of them were soaking wet, apparently having jumped into the showers fully clothed to help. Who they were or how they had gotten to Rachel and the others in time was beyond her. It made no difference at the moment. We're alive.

Bio Enzyme Lab

Enzyme Lab Experiments Problem: How can we demonstrate how enzymes work? What happens if we alter the environment of an enzyme? Materials: G;lucose Test StripsTest TubesPipettesRaw HamburgLettucePotato Raw LiverChalkBeakersDairy Lactose TabletWaterSugar Solo Cups Hot PlateKnifeGlovesSkim MilkGlow SticksPeroxide Hypothesis: 1. If we change the environment via temperature the glow stick will Its intensity will change 2. If hydrogen peroxide is added to a certain food liver then It would bubble 3. If a lactaid enzyme to milk the It would separate Procedure (A): 1. Collect three glow sticks. 2. Boil water in 400 mL beaker add 1st glowstick for 30 minutes. 3. Place second glowstick in freezer for 30 minutes 4. Leave third glow stick at room temperature for 30 minutes 5. Observe and record findings. Data Collected (A): Place a glow stick in each environment below. Using a scale 1-3 1 being normal intensity 3 being brightest intensity BeakerObservation Freezer1 Boiling Water3 Room Temperature (control)2 Procedure (B): 1. Collect sample of raw liver, potato, raw hamburg, lettuce and chalk. 2. Place each sample in individual test tube in rack. 3. Observe samples prior to adding peroxide. 4. Add 1 mL of peroxide to each test tube 5. Observe and record findings Data Collected (B): Reaction after hydrogen peroxide is added. Using a scale of 0-5 0 Being no bubbles 5 being the most bubbles Test tubeObservation before adding hydrogen peroxideObservation after adding hydrogen peroxide # 1 liverDark brown in color (expired meat)5 # 2 potatoInner slice with some skin2 # 3 raw hamburgNormal in color4 # 4 lettuceFresh green lettuce1 # 5 chalk Yellow colored chalk0 Procedure (C): Preparation: 1. Enzyme Solution: Add one lactase tablet to 200 ml of water. Stir until the tablet is dissolved. . Skim Milk: This solution contains lactose. 3. Sucrose Solution:Add 5 grams of sugar to 100 ml of water. Stir until the sugar is dissolved. 4. Denatured enzyme Solution: 1. Place 20 ml of enzyme solution into a test tube. 2. Add 200 ml of water to a 400 ml beaker. 3. Place the test tube in the beaker. Make sure it does not spill out. 4. Place the beaker and the test tube on a hot plate. 5. Boil the water for 30 minutes. 6. Let the solution cool to room temperature. Procedure (C-1) 1. Collect 6 mL of skim milk, place 2mL in each test tube (3 test tubes of skim milk). . Collect 4mL of sucrose solution, place 2mL in each test tube (2 test tubes total). 3. Observe and record initial observations. 4. Add 1mL of enzyme solution to a skim milk test tube; add 1mL of water to 2nd skim milk test tube, ad 1mL denatured enzyme solution to 3rd skim milk test tube. 5. Add 1mL of enzyme solution to 1st test tube of sucrose solution; add 1mL of water to 2nd test tube of sucrose solution. 6. Insert Glucose test strip in wch test tube (5 total). Wait 2 minutes. 7. Observe and record whether or not glucose is present and how much. Test tubeInitial ObservationGlucose Test strip: Is glucose present 1. 2 ml of skim milk and 1ml of the enzyme solutionBubbles3000 Glucose 2. 2 ml of skim milk and 1 ml of waterNo bubbles 2 layers300 Glucose 3. 2 ml of skim milk and 1 ml of denatured solutionBubbles and layers 0 Glucose 4. 2 ml of sucrose solution and 1 ml of enzyme solutionClear liquidYellow in color zero glucose 5. 2 ml of sucrose solution and 1 ml of waterClear liquid Yellow in color no glucose What happens when the enzyme is denatured? The Enzyme does not work. Result Questions: 1. In which beaker did the glow stick glow the most? Why do you think that is? The beaker that contained hot water. The heat from the water will speed up the chemical rate of reaction taking place, and therefore will glow brighter; the cold one will have its rate of reaction slowed, and thus be dimmer. 2. What did the glow stick show about enzymes and different environments? How does changing the temperature affect the rate of an enzyme-controlled experiment? The increasing temperature increases molecular motion and may increase the number of times an enzyme contacts and combines with a substrate molecule. Temperature may also influence the shape of the enzyme molecule, making it fit better with the substrate. 3. What effect may change in PH have on an enzyme activity? The three-dimensional structure of a protein leaves certain side chains exposed. These side chains may attract ions from the environment. Under the right conditions, a group of positively charged hydrogen ions may accumulate on certain parts of an enzyme. A change in pH disrupts an enzyme's shape and structure. When the pH changes an enzyme's structure, the enzyme can't do its job. Changes in pH break the delicate bonds that maintain an enzyme's shape. An enzyme will unravel, or denature, and become useless in a different pH. Stomach enzymes work in a super acidic environment of pH 2. A little way down the digestive tract, intestine enzymes need a pH of 8. 4. Why did the hamburger and liver react differently with hydrogen peroxide? They have natural catalase enzymes which were broken down with the presence of hydrogen peroxide. 5. What is the job of the lactase enzyme? Lactase is an enzyme which breaks down lactose, a sugar found in milk and other dairy products. 6. In which test tubes was the glucose present? Why? In test tube #1 the enzyme broke down the lactose . Lactose is a disaccharide of glucose and galactose. The lactose tablet contained lactase which hydrolyzed the lactose into constituent galactose and glucose. Glucose is naturally occurring in skim milk thus in test tube # 2 found in a much smaller amount than test tube #1. 7. What happened when the enzyme was denatured or altered by heat? Did it work the same? Was glucose present? There was no glucose present. It did not work at all. Summary: What the class learn today about the jobs of enzymes? What questions does the class still have?